Abstract
Atypical working times have become an increasingly common reality for much of the workforce. While most of the research has focused on the negative impacts of shift work on employee health and family life, the possibility of enrichment between work and life roles has rather been neglected. Yet, it appears that shift workers may have some leeway in determining their own schedule through the use of “flex shifts”, indicating a possibility to achieve a satisfying work-life balance. Through the lens of work-family boundary dynamics, our paper analyzes the choices and experiences of shift workers who can, to a certain degree, request shifts suiting their personal preferences. We conducted a qualitative research and led 59 semi-directive interviews with flight attendants and service directors from Canadian and German airlines. Our findings indicate the presence of work-life enrichment between shift work and other life roles, including but not limited to the family domain. Our results allow for a discussion on employees’ right to flexible work and the construct of “work-life balance” in the twenty-first century.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen, T. D., Herst, D. E. L., Bruck, C. S., & Sutton, M. (2000). Consequences associated with work-family conflict: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(2), 278–308.
Allen, T. D., Cho, E., & Meier, L. L. (2014). Work-family boundary dynamics. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(121), 99.
Ashforth, B. E., Kreiner, G. E., & Fugate, M. (2000). All in a day's work: Boundaries and micro role transitions. The Academy of Management Review, 25(3), 472–491.
Bailey, J., & Field, J. (1985). Personnel scheduling with flexshifts models. Journal of Operations Management, 5(3), 327–338.
Barnes, M., Bryson, C., & Smith, R. (2006). Working atypical hours: What happens to family life? Research report P2439. National Center for Social Research.
Barnett, R. C., Gareis, K., & Brennan, R. T. (2008). Wives’ shift work schedules and husbands’ and wives’ well-being in dual-earner couples with children a within couple analysis. Journal of Family Issues, 29(3), 396–422.
Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F., & Tice, D. M. (1994). Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation. San Diego: Academic Press.
Beigi, M., & Shirmohammadi, M. (2017). Qualitative research on work–family in the management Field: A review. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 66(3), 382–433.
Beutell, N.J. & O’Hare, M. M. (2018). Work schedule and work schedule control fit: Work-family conflict, workfamily synergy, gender, and satisfaction.
Bird, R. C., & Brown, L. (2018). The United Kingdom right to request as a model for flexible work in the European Union. American Business Law Journal, 55, 53–115. https://doi.org/10.1111/ablj.12117.
Blackman, A., Welters, R., Murphy, L., Eagle, L., Pearce, M., Pryce, J., et al. (2014). Workers’ perceptions of FIFO work in North Queensland, Australia. Australian Bulletin of Labour, 40(2), 180–200.
Bulger, C. A., Matthews, R. A., & Hoffman, M. E. (2007). Work and personal life boundary management: Boundary strength, work/personal life balance, and the segmentation-integration continuum. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(4), 365–375.
Chen, M.K., Chevalier, J.A., Rossi, P.E. & Oehlsen, E. (2017). The value of flexible work: Evidence from Uber drivers. Working Paper 23296, National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved online at: http://www.nber.org/papers/w23296. Accessed July 23, 2019.
Clark, S. C. (2000). Work/family border theory: A new theory of work/family balance. Human Relations, 53, 747–770.
Davis, K. D., Crouter, A. C., & Mchale, S. (2006). Implications of shift work for parent-adolescent relationships in dual-earner families. Family Relations, 55(4), 450–460.
Davis, K. D., Goodman, W. B., Pirretti, A. E., & Almeida, D. M. (2008). Nonstandard work schedules, perceived family well-being, and daily stressors. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 70(4), 991–1003.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1998). The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues. London: Sage.
Drisko, J., & Maschi, T. (2016). Content Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press.
Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). The three worlds of welfare capitalism. Princeton University Press.
Eurecca.com. (2015). Flight and duty time limitations. Retrived online at: http://www.eurecca.aero/index.php/position-papers/flight-time-limitations. Accesssed July 23, 2019.
Gamache, M., Soumis, F., Villeneuve, D., Desrosiers, J., & Gélinas, E. (1998). The preferrential bidding system at air Canada. Transportation Science, 32(3), 246–255.
Gardner, B., Alfrey, K.-L., Vandelanotte, C., & Rebar, A. L. (2018). Mental health and well-being concerns of fly-in fly-out workers and their partners in Australia: A qualitative study. BMJ Open, 8, e019516. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019516.
Gareis, K., Barnett, R., Brennan, R., Ertel, K., & Berkman, L. (2009). Work-family enrichment and conflict: Additive effects, buffering or balance? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 71(3), 696–707.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. The Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76–88.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2006). When work and family are allied: A theory of work-family enrichment. The Academy of Management Review, 31(1), 72–92.
Greenhaus, J. H., Ziegert, J. C., & Allen, T. D. (2012). When family-supportive supervision matters: Relations between multiple sources of support and work–family balance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80, 266–275.
Han, W.-J. (2008). Shift work and child behavioral outcomes. Work Employment and Society, 22(1), 67–87.
Henly, J. R., Shaefer, H. L., & Waxman, E. (2006). Nonstandard Work Schedules: Employer- and Employee-Driven Flexibility in Retail Jobs. The Social Service Review, 80(4), 609–634.
Hsieh, H.-F., & Shannon, S. E. (2016). Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288.
Jansen, N. W. H., Kant, I. J., Kristensen, T. S., & Nijhuis, F. J. N. (2003). Antecedents and consequences of work-family conflict: A prospective cohort study. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45(5), 479–491.
Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Organizational stress. New York: Wiley.
Kalleberg, A. L. (2000). Nonstandard Employment Relations: Part-time, Temporary and Contract Work. Annual Review of Sociology, 26(1), 341–365.
Kanter, R. M. (1977). Work and family in the United States: A critical review and agenda for research and policy. New York: Russell Sage Found.
Kecklund, G., & Axelsson, J. (2016). Health consequences of shift work and insufficient sleep. BMJ. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i5210.
Kelliher, C., Richardson, J., & Boiarintseva, G. (2018). All of work? All of life? Reconceptualising work-life balance for the 21st century. Human Resource Management Journal, 29, 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/1748-8583.12215.
Kossek, E. E., Pichler, S., Bodner, T., & Hammer, L. B. (2011). Workplace social support and work-family conflict: A meta-analysis clarifying the influence of general and work-family-specific supervsiro and organizational support. Personnel Psychology, 64, 289–313.
Kreiner, G. E., Hollensbe, E. C., & Sheep, M. L. (2009). Balancing borders and bridges: Negotiating the work-home interface via boundary work tactics. The Academy of Management Journal, 52, 704–730.
Lester, L., Waters, S., Spears, B., Epstein, M., Watson, J., & Wenden, E. (2015). Parenting adolescents: Developing strategies for FIFO parents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 3757–3766.
Li, J., Johnson, S. E., Han, W.-J., Andrews, S., Kendall, G., Strazdins, L., & Dockery, A. (2013). Parents‘ nonstandard work schedules and child well-being – A critical review of the literature. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 35(1), 53–73.
Mansour, S. & Tremblay, D.G. (2018), Work–family conflict/family–work conflict, job stress, burnout and intention to leave in the hotel industry in Quebec (Canada): moderating role of need for family friendly practices as “resource passageways ”. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 29(16), 2399-2440.
Marshall, K. (1998). Couples working shift. Perspectives on labour and income, 10(3), 9-14, statistics Canada catalogue no. 75-001-XPE.
Maume, D. J., & Sebastian, R. A. (2012). Gender, nonstandard work schedules, and marital quality. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 33(4), 477–490.
Mauno, S., Ruokolainen, M., & Kinnunen, U. (2015). Work–family conflict and enrichment from the perspective of psychosocial resources: Comparing Finnish healthcare workers by working schedules. Applied Ergonomics, 48, 86–94.
McKinsey. (2016). Independent work: Choice, necessity and the gig economy. Retrieved online at: https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/employment-and-growth/independent-work-choice-necessity-and-the-gig-economy. Accessed 23 July 2019
McNall, L., Masuda, A., & Nicklin, J. (2010). Flexible work arrangements, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions: The mediating role of work-to-family enrichment. The Journal of Psychology, 144(1), 61–81.
Newey, C. A., & Hood, B. M. (2004). Determinants of shift-work adjustment for nursing staff: The critical experience of partners. Journal of Professional Nursing, 20(3), 187–195.
Nippert-Eng, C. (1996). Calendars and keys: The classification of "home" and "work". Sociological Forum, 11(3), 563–582.
Osnowitz, D., & Henson, K. D. (2016). Leveraging Limits for Contract Professionals. Work and Occupations, 43(3), 326–360.
Park, Y., Fritz, C., & Jex, S. M. (2011). Relationship between work-home segmentation and psychological detachment from work: The role of communication technology use at home. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16, 457–467.
Patton, M. Q. (1999). Enhancing the quality and credibility of qualitative analysis. Health Services Research, 35(5pt 2), 1189–1208.
Pedersen, V. B., & Jeppesen, H. J. (2012). Contagious flexibility? A study on whether schedule flexibility facilitates work-life enrichment. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 53, 347–359.
Perrucci, R., MacDermid, S., King, E., Tang, C. Y., Brimeyer, T., Ramadoss, K., Kiser, S. J., & Swanberg, J. (2007). The significance of shift work: Current status and future directions. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 28, 600–617.
Perry-Jenkins, M., Golberg, A. E., Pierce, C. P., & Sayer, A. G. (2007). Shift work, role overload, and the transition to parenthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(1), 123–138.
Presser, H. B. (1995). Job, family and gender: Determinants of nonstandard work schedules among employed Americans in 1991. Demography, 32, 577–595.
Presser, H. B. (2000). Nonstandard Work Schedules and Marital Instability. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(1), 93–110.
Presser, H. B. (2003). Race-ethnic and gender differences in nonstandard work shifts. Work and Occupations, 30(4), 412–439.
Root, L. S., & Wooten, L. P. (2008). Time out for family: Shift work, fathers, and sports. Human Resource Management, 47(3), 481–499.
Rothbard, N. P., & Ollier-Malaterre, A. (2016). Boundary management. In T. D. Allen & L. T. Eby (Eds.), The Oxford Handook of work and family. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199337538.013.5.
Schwandt, T. (1998). Constructivist, interpretivist approaches to human inquiry. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues (pp. 221–259). London: Sage.
Shalla, V. (2004). Time Warped: The Flexibilization and Maximization of Flight Attendant Working Time. Canadian Journal of Regional Science, 41(3), 345–368.
Sonnentag, S. (2012). Psychological detachment from work during leisure time: The benefits of mentally dis- engaging from work. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 114–118.
Spreitzer, G. M., Cameron, L., & Garrett, L. (2017). Alternative work arrangements: The two images of the new world of work. Annual Review of Oganizational and Psychological Behavior, 4, 473–499.
Staines, G. L., & Pleck, J. H. (1984). Nonstandard work schedules and family life. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(3), 515–523.
Sturges, J. (2012). Crafting a balance between work and home. Human Relations, 65, 1539–1559.
Tammelin, M., Malinen, K., Rönka, A., & Verhoef, M. (2017). Work schedules and work–family conflict among dual earners in Finland, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Journal of Family Issues, 38(1), 3–14.
Tausig, M., & Fenwick, R. (2001). Unbinding time: Alternate work schedules and work-life balance. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 22(2), 101–119.
Thomas, L. T., & Ganster, D. C. (1995). Impact of family-supportive work variables on work-family conflcit and strain: A control perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(1), 6–15.
Transport Canada (n.d.).Canadian aviation regulations - flight time and duty time. URL: http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-96-433/page-105.html#h-941. Accessed 23 July 2019.
Tremblay, D.-G (2012). Articuler emploi et famille : Le rôle du soutien organisationnel au coeur de trois professions (infirmières, travailleuses sociales et policiers). Québec : Presses de l’université du Québec. 284 p.
Tremblay, Diane-Gabrielle (2017-3rdedition). L’éclatement de l’emploi. Québec : Presses de l’université du Québec.
Tremblay, D. G. (2019). Conciliation emploi-famille et temps sociaux (4th ed.). Presses de l’Université du Québec.
Tuttle, R., & Garr, M. (2012). Shift work and work to family fit: Does schedule control matter? Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 33, 261–271.
Van den Bergh, J., Beliën, J., De Bruecker, P., Demeulemeester, E., & De Boeck, L. (2013). Personnel scheduling: A literature review. European Journal of Operational Research, 226, 367–385.
Vitale, S. A., Varrone-Ganesh, J., & Vu, M. (2015). Nurses working the night shift: Impact on home, family and social life. Journal of Nursing Education and Practice, 5(10), 70–78.
Whalen, H., & Schmidt, G. (2016). The women who remain behind: Challenges in the LDC lifestyle. Rural Society, 25(1), 1–14.
White, L., & Keith, B. (1990). The effect of shift work on the quality and stability of marital relations. Journal of Marriage and Family, 52(2), 453–462.
Whitelegg, D. (2007). Working the skies: The fast-paced, disorienting world of the flight attendant. New York University Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
I confirm that there are no conflicts of interest, no animals were used and human participants gave informed consent to participate in the research. Also, I have an Ethics Certificate from my university, which confirms that I respected all ethics requirements of Granting councils.
Research Involving Human Participants and/or Animals
Human participants and all ethical requirements were respected.
Informed Consent
Yes, this was ensured.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nogues, S., Tremblay, DG. Managing Work-Nonwork Boundaries in Atypical Working Patterns: Evidence from Flight Attendants in Canada and Germany. Employ Respons Rights J 31, 197–221 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10672-019-09338-7
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10672-019-09338-7