Abstract
Trauma is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the pediatric population worldwide with a large proportion of death-related trauma related to head injury. Injury mechanisms are particular to this age group and include the full spectrum of sporting events, falls, motor vehicle collisions, interpersonal assaults, and intentional injuries. Although safety measures have decreased the incidence of fatal head injuries, there has been a concomitant increase in nonfatal injuries. Some studies suggest that during the past years, there has been an increase in the number of children that require emergency and inhospital management for these injuries. The popularity of manual high-speed wheeled devices, such as bicycles, skateboards, and scooters, among the pediatric population has also contributed to the increased rate of injury. Additionally, the use of motorized vehicles is implicated in high-velocity injuries, resulting in amplified peripheral damage. Engaging in sporting activities, whether on a playground or in a supervised environment, is also a common cause of pediatric injuries. Prevention is key. The use of helmets, protective gear, and restraints reduces but does not eliminate the occurrence of facial injury in users.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
References
Alcalá-Galiano A, Arribas-García IJ, Martín-Pérez MA, Romance A, Montalvo-Moreno JJ, Juncos JM. Pediatric facial fractures: children are not just small adults. Radiographics. 2008;28:441–61.
Andrew TW, Morbia R, Lorenz HP. Pediatric facial Trauma. Clin Plast Surg. 2019;46(2):239–47.
Arbogast KB, Durbin DR, Kallan MJ, Menon RA, Lincoln AE, Winston FK. The role of restraint and seat position in pediatric facial fractures. J Trauma. 2002;52(4):693–8.
Atabaki S. Pediatric head injury. Pediatr Rev. 2007;25:215–24.
Bamjee Y, Lownie JF, Cleaton-Jones PE, Lownie MA. Maxillofacial injuries in a group of South Africans under 18 years of age. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1996;34(4):298–302.
Brisco J, Fuller K, Lee N, Andrew D. Cone beam computed tomography for imaging orbital trauma--image quality and radiation dose compared with conventional multislice computed tomography. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2014;52(1):76–80.
Chao MT, Losee JE. Complications in pediatric facial fractures. Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr. 2009;2(2):103–12.
Chapman VM, Fenton LZ, Gao D, Strain JD. Facial fractures in children: unique patterns of injury observed by computed tomography. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 2009;33(1):70–2.
Chen HH, Neumeier AT, Davies BW, Durairaj VD. Analysis of pediatric facial dog bites. Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr. 2013;6(4):225–32.
Chrcanovic BR. Open versus closed reduction: mandibular condylar fractures in children. Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2012;16(3):245–55.
EggenspergerWymann NM, Hölzle A, Zachariou Z, Iizuka T. Pediatric craniofacial trauma. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;66(1):58–64.
Eppley BL. Use of resorbable plates and screws in pediatric facial fractures. J Oral MaxillofacSurg. 2005;63(3):385–91.
Ferreira PC, Santa-Comba A, Barbosa RF, Rodrigues JM, Reis JC, Amarante JM. Cervical impalement injury. J Craniofac Surg. 2004;15(5):851–4.
Ferreira PC, Amarante JM, Silva PN, Rodrigues JM, Choupina MP, Silva AC, Barbosa RF, Cardoso MA, Reis JC. Retrospective study of 1251 maxillofacial fractures in children and adolescents. PlastReconstrSurg. 2005;115:1500–8.
Ferreira PC, Barbosa J, Amarante JM, Carvalho J, Rodrigues Á, Silva ÁC. Associated injuries in pediatric patients with facial fractures in Portugal: Analysis of 1416 patients. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2015a;43:437–443.
Ferreira P, Barbosa J, Amarante J, Insua-Pereira I, Soares C, Silva Á. Changes in the characteristics of facial fractures in children and adolescents in Portugal 1993–2012. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015b;53(3):251–6.
Fonseca RJ, Bertz JA, Powers MP, Beck BW, Holton JB. Management of soft tissue injuries. In: Fonseca RJ, Walker RV, Barber HD, Poweres MP, Frost DE, editors. Oral and maxillofacial trauma. 4th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2013.
Gassner R, Tuli T, Hächl O, Moreira J, Ulmer H. Craniomaxillofacial trauma in children: a review of 3385 cases with 6060 injuries in 10 years. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2004;62:399–407.
Glazer M, Joshua BZ, Woldenberg Y, Bodner L. Mandibular fractures in children: analysis of 61 cases and review of the literature. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2011;75(1):62–4.
Gunarajah DR, Samman N. Biomaterials for repair of orbital floor blowout fractures: a systematic review. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2013;71(3):550–70.
Hatef DA, Cole PD, Hollier LH Jr. Contemporary management of pediatric facial trauma. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2009;17(4):308–14.
Haug RH, Foss J. Maxillofacial injuries in the paediatric patient. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2000;90:126–34.
Hogg NJ. Primary and secondary management of pediatric soft tissue injuries. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2012;24(3):365–75.
Hollier LH Jr, P Kelley JC, Koshy. Soft-tissue and skeletal injuries of the face. In: Thome CH, Chung KC, Gosain A, Gurtner GC, Mehrara BJ, Rubin JP, Spear CL, editors. Grabb and Smith’s plastic surgery. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams& Wilkins; 2014.
Horsewell BB, Meara D. Pediatric facial trauma. In: Miloro M, Ghali GE, Larsen PE, Waite PD, editors. Peterson’s principles of oral and maxillofacial surgery. 3rd ed. Vol 1. People’s Medical Publishing House-USA; 2012.
Hurst PJ, Hoon Hwang MJ, Dodson TB, et al. Children have an increased risk of periorbital dog bite injuries. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2020;78(1):91–100. pii: S0278–2391(19)31046–8.
Imahara SD, Hopper RA, Wang J, Rivara PF, Klein MB. Patterns and outcomes of pediatric facial fractures in the United States: a survey of the national trauma data bank. J Am CollSurg. 2008;207:710–6.
Kolk A, Stimmer H, Klopfer M, Wolff KD, Hohlweg-Majert B, Ploder O, Pautke C. High resolution magnetic resonance imaging with an orbital coil as an alternative to computed tomography scan as the primary imaging modality of pediatric orbital fractures. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009;67(2):348–56.
Li Z, Li ZB. Characteristic changes of pediatric maxillofacial fractures in China during the past 20 years. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;66(11):2239–42.
Macmillan A, Lopez J, Luck JD, et al. How do Le Fort-type fractures present in a pediatric cohort? J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2018;76(5):1044–54.
Mueller RV. Facial trauma: soft tissue injuries. In: Neligan PC, editor. Plastic surgery, vol. 3. 3rd ed. London: Elsevier; 2013.
Muniz A. Evaluation and management of pediatric abdominal trauma. PediatrEmerg Med Practice. 2008;5(3):1–32.
Neinstein RM, Phillips JH, Forrest CR. Pediatric orbital floor trapdoor fractures: outcomes and CT-based morphologic assessment of the inferior rectus muscle. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2012 Jul;65(7):869–74.
Qing-Bin Z, Zhao-Qiang Z, Dan C, Yan Z. Epidemiology of maxillofacial injury in children under 15 years of age in southern China. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2013;115(4):436–41.
Ridgway EB, Cowan JB, Donelan MB, Driscoll DN. Pediatric burn-related scalp alopecia treated with tissue expansion and the incidence of associated facial burn injuries. J Burn Care Res. 2010;31(3):409–13.
Ryan ML, Thorson CM, Otero CA, Ogilvie MP, Cheung MC, Saigal GM, Thaller SR. Pediatric facial trauma: a review of guidelines for assessment, evaluation, and management in the emergency department. J Craniofac Surg. 2011;22(4):1183–9.
Vasconez HC, Buseman JL, Cunningham LL. Management of facial soft tissue injuries in children. J Craniofac Surg. 2011;22(4):1320–6.
Wang H, Song G, Ren W, et al. Traumatic facial fractures in children and adolescents. J Craniofac Surg. 2018;29(7):1809–12.
Wheeler J, Phillips J. Pediatric facial fractures and potential long-term growth disturbances. Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr. 2011;4(1):43–52.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature
About this entry
Cite this entry
Ferreira, P., Soares, C., Amarante, J. (2020). Facial Trauma. In: Puri, P. (eds) Pediatric Surgery. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38482-0_133-2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38482-0_133-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-38482-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-38482-0
eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine
Publish with us
Chapter history
-
Latest
Facial Trauma- Published:
- 09 September 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38482-0_133-2
-
Original
Facial Trauma- Published:
- 31 January 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38482-0_133-1