Skip to main content

Nutrition in Infants and Children

  • Living reference work entry
  • Latest version View entry history
  • First Online:
Pediatric Surgery
  • 195 Accesses

Abstract

Nutritional care of surgical infants and children is of major importance. This is for several reasons: (i) body stores are often smaller and more precarious; (ii) infants and children require not only energy for maintenance but also for growth; and (iii) as in adults, recovery from surgery is faster in those patients who are adequately nourished. Survival of infants with congenital anomalies dramatically improved following the introduction of parenteral nutrition. However, infection and cholestasis remain problematic for parenterally fed infants and children.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Albers MJ, Steyerberg EW, Hazebroek FW, Mourik M, Borsboom GJ, Rietveld T, et al. Glutamine supplementation of parenteral nutrition does not improve intestinal permeability, nitrogen balance, or outcome in newborns and infants undergoing digestive-tract surgery: results from a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Ann Surg. 2005;241(4):599–606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. Parenteral nutrition. In: Kleinman RE, editor. Pediatric nutrition handbook. 5th ed. Elk Grove Village: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2004. p. 369–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anand KJS, Sippell WG, Aynsley-Green A. Randomised trial of fentanyl anaesthesia in preterm babies undergoing surgery: effects on the stress response. Lancet. 1987;1:62–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barnhart DC. Gastroesophageal reflux disease in children. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2016;25(4):212–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basu R, Muller DPR, Eaton S, Merryweather I, Pierro A. Lipid peroxidation can be reduced in infants on total parenteral nutrition by promoting fat utilisation. J Pediatr Surg. 1999;34(2):255–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer J, Hentschel R, Linderkamp O. Effect of sepsis syndrome on neonatal oxygen consumption and energy expenditure. Pediatrics. 2002;110(6):e69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishay M, Retrosi G, Horn V, Cloutman-Green E, Harris K, De CP, et al. Chlorhexidine antisepsis significantly reduces the incidence of sepsis and septicemia during parenteral nutrition in surgical infants. J Pediatr Surg. 2011;46:1064–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishay M, Retrosi G, Horn V, Cloutman-Green E, Harris K, De CP, et al. Septicaemia due to enteric organisms is a later event in surgical infants requiring parenteral nutrition. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2012a;22(1):50–3.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bishay M, Pichler J, Horn V, Macdonald S, Ellmer M, Eaton S, et al. Intestinal failure-associated liver disease in surgical infants requiring long-term parenteral nutrition. J Pediatr Surg. 2012b;47:359–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blinman T, Cook R. Allometric prediction of energy expenditure in infants and children. Infant Child Adolesc Nutr. 2011;3(4):216–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bohnhorst B, Muller S, Dordelmann M, Peter CS, Petersen C, Poets CF. Early feeding after necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. J Pediatr. 2003;143(3):484–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter BA, Shulman RJ. Mechanisms of disease: update on the molecular etiology and fundamentals of parenteral nutrition associated cholestasis. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007;4:277–87.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury MM, Pierro A. Gastrointestinal problems of the newborn. In: Guandalini S, editor. Textbook of pediatric gastroenterology and nutrition. London: Taylor and Francis; 2004. p. 579–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clayton PT, Bowron A, Mills KA, Massoud A, Casteels M, Milla PJ. Phytosterolemia in children with parenteral nutrition-associated cholestatic liver disease. Gastroenterology. 1993;105(6):1806–13.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Denne SC, Poindexter BB, Leitch CA, Ernst JA, Lemons PK, Lemons JA. Nutrition and metabolism in the high-risk neonate. In: Martin RJ, Fanarof AA, Walsh MC, editors. Fanaroff and Martin’s neonatal-perinatal medicine. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby-Elsevier; 2006. p. 661–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donnell SC, Lloyd DA, Eaton S, Pierro A. The metabolic response to intravenous medium-chain triglycerides in infants after surgery. J Pediatr. 2002;141(5):689–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton S. The biochemical basis of antioxidant therapy in critical illness. Proc Nutr Soc. 2006;65:242–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton S, Aufieri R, Pierro A. Functions of glutamine in critical illness. CAB Rev: Perspect Agric, Vet Sci, Nutr Nat Res. 2010;5:013. 11 pp

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flynn DM, Gowen H. Paediatric parenteral nutrition and lipid usage in the UK – a pick N’ mix situation? Clin Nutr. 2010;29:275–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garza JJ, Shew SB, Keshen TH, Dzakovic A, Jahoor F, Jaksic T. Energy expenditure in ill premature neonates. J Pediatr Surg. 2002;37(3):289–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goulet O, Antebi H, Wolf C, Talbotec C, Alcindor LG, Corriol O, et al. A new intravenous fat emulsion containing soybean oil, medium-chain triglycerides, olive oil, and fish oil: a single-center, double-blind randomized study on efficacy and safety in pediatric patients receiving home parenteral nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2010;34:485–95.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Groner JI, Brown MF, Stallings VA, Ziegler MM, O’Neill-JA J. Resting energy expenditure in children following major operative procedures. J Pediatr Surg. 1989;24:825–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hall NJ, Peters M, Eaton S, Pierro A. Hyperglycemia is associated with increased morbidity and mortality rates in neonates with necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr Surg. 2004;39(6):898–901.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hall NJ, Drewett M, Wheeler RA, Griffiths DM, Kitteringham LJ, Burge DM. Trans-anastomotic tubes reduce the need for central venous access and parenteral nutrition in infants with congenital duodenal obstruction. Pediatr Surg Int. 2011;27:851–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harding JE, Cormack BE, Alexander T, et al. Advances in nutrition of the newborn infant. Lnacet. 2017;389(10079):1660–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hill AG, Hill GL. Metabolic response to severe injury. Br J Surg. 1998;85:884–90.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jaksic T, Shew SB, Keshen TH, Dzakovic A, Jahoor F. Do critically ill surgical neonates have increased energy expenditure? J Pediatr Surg. 2001;36(1):63–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jawaheer G, Pierro A, Lloyd D, Shaw N. Gall-bladder contractility in neonates – effects of parenteral and enteral feeding. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1995;72:F200–2.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones MO, Pierro A, Hammond P, Lloyd DA. The metabolic response to operative stress in infants. J Pediatr Surg. 1993;28(10):1258–62.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koletzko B, Goulet O, Hunt J, Krohn K, Shamir R, for the Parenteral Nutrition Guidelines Working Group. Guidelines on paediatric parenteral nutrition of the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) and the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN), supported by the European Society of Paediatric Research (ESPR). 2. Energy. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005a;41:S5–S11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koletzko B, Goulet O, Hunt J, Krohn K, Shamir R, for the Parenteral Nutrition Guidelines Working Group. Guidelines on paediatric parenteral nutrition of the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) and the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN), supported by the European Society of Paediatric Research (ESPR). 9. Venous access. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005b;41:S54–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koletzko B, Goulet O, Hunt J, Krohn K, Shamir R, for the Parenteral Nutrition Guidelines Working Group. Guidelines on paediatric parenteral nutrition of the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) and the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN), supported by the European Society of Paediatric Research (ESPR). 5. Carbohydrates. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005c;41:S28–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koletzko B, Goulet O, Hunt J, Krohn K, Shamir R, for the Parenteral Nutrition Guidelines Working Group. Guidelines on paediatric parenteral nutrition of the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) and the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN), supported by the European Society of Paediatric Research (ESPR). 4. Lipids. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005d;41:S19–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koletzko B, Goulet O, Hunt J, Krohn K, Shamir R, for the Parenteral Nutrition Guidelines Working Group. Guidelines on paediatric parenteral nutrition of the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) and the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN), supported by the European Society of Paediatric Research (ESPR). 7. Iron, minerals and trace elements. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005e;41:S39–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koletzko B, Goulet O, Hunt J, Krohn K, Shamir R, for the Parenteral Nutrition Guidelines Working Group. Guidelines on paediatric parenteral nutrition of the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) and the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN), supported by the European Society of Paediatric Research (ESPR). 8. Vitamins. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005f;41:S47–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kubota A, Yonekura T, Hoki M, Oyanagi H, Kawahara H, Yagi M, et al. Total parenteral nutrition-associated intrahepatic cholestasis in infants: 25 years’ experience. J Pediatr Surg. 2000;35:1049–51.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lehner F, Demmelmair H, Roschinger W, Decsi T, Szasz M, Adamovich K, et al. Metabolic effects of intravenous LCT or MCT/LCT lipid emulsions in preterm infants. J Lipid Res. 2006;47(2):404–11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McHoney M, Eaton S, Pierro A. Metabolic response to surgery in infants and children. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2009;19:275–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer R, Kulinskaya E, Briassoulis G, Taylor RM, Cooper M, Pathan N, et al. The challenge of developing a new predictive formula to estimate energy requirements in ventilated critically ill children. Nutr Clin Pract. 2012;27:669–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mrozek JD, Georgieff MK, Blazar BR, Mammel MC, Schwarzenberg SJ. Effect of sepsis syndrome on neonatal protein and energy metabolism. J Perinatol. 2000;20:96–100.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • NCEPOD. A mixed bag: an enquiry into the care of hospital patients receiving parenteral nutrition. In: Stewart JAD, Mason DG, Smith N, Protopapa K, Mason M, editors. London: National Confidential Enquiry into Patient Outcome and Death; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okada Y, Klein N, van Saene HK, Pierro A. Small volumes of enteral feedings normalise immune function in infants receiving parenteral nutrition. J Pediatr Surg. 1998;33:16–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okada Y, Klein NJ, van Saene HK, Webb G, Holzel H, Pierro A. Bactericidal activity against coagulase-negative staphylococci is impaired in infants receiving long-term parenteral nutrition. Ann Surg. 2000;231(2):276–81.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ong EGP, Eaton S, Wade AM, Horn V, Losty PD, Curry JI, et al. Randomised controlled trial of glutamine supplemented versus regular parenteral nutrition of surgical infants. Br J Surg. 2012;99(7):929–38.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pierro A, Jones MO, Hammond P, Nunn A, Lloyd DA. Utilisation of intravenous fat in the surgical newborn infant. Proc Nutr Soc. 1993;52:237A. Ref Type: Abstract

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierro A, Jones MO, Hammond P, Donnell SC, Lloyd DA. A new equation to predict the resting energy expenditure of surgical infants. J Pediatr Surg. 1994;29(8):1103–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pierro A, van Saene HKF, Donnell SC, Hughes J, Ewan C, Nunn AJ, et al. Microbial translocation in neonates and infants receiving long-term parenteral-nutrition. Arch Surg. 1996;131(2):176–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pitkanen O, Hallman M, Andersson S. Generation of free-radicals in lipid emulsion used in parenteral- nutrition. Pediatr Res. 1991;29:56–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Powis MR, Smith K, Rennie M, Halliday D, Pierro A. Effect of major abdominal operations on energy and protein metabolism in infants and children. J Pediatr Surg. 1998;33:49–53.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Powis MR, Smith K, Rennie M, Halliday D, Pierro A. Characteristics of protein and energy metabolism in neonates with necrotizing enterocolitis – a pilot study. J Pediatr Surg. 1999;34(1):5–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Puder M, Valim C, Meisel JA, Le HD, de MV, Robinson EM, et al. Parenteral fish oil improves outcomes in patients with parenteral nutrition-associated liver injury. Ann Surg. 2009;250(3):395–402.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shanbhogue RLK, Lloyd DA. Absence of hypermetabolism after operation in the newborn- infant. JPEN J Parenter Enter Nutr. 1992;16(4):333–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Socha P, Koletzko B, Demmelmair H, Jankowska I, Stajniak A, Bednarska-Makaruk M, et al. Short-term effects of parenteral nutrition of cholestatic infants with lipid emulsions based on medium-chain and long-chain triacylglycerols. Nutrition. 2007;23:121–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sudan D, Thompson J, Botha J, Grant W, Antonson D, Raynor S, et al. Comparison of intestinal lengthening procedures for patients with short bowel syndrome. Ann Surg. 2007;246(4):593–601.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Aerde JE, Sauer PJ, Pencharz PB, Smith JM, Swyer PR. Effect of replacing glucose with lipid on the energy metabolism of newborn infants. Clin Sci. 1989;76(6):581–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White MS, Shepherd RW, McEniery JA. Energy expenditure in 100 ventilated, critically ill children: improving the accuracy of predictive equations. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:2307–12.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkins CE, Emmerson AJB. Extravasation injuries on regional neonatal units. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2004;89(3):F274–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zlotkin SH, Bryan MH, Anderson GH. Intravenous nitrogen and energy intakes required to duplicate in utero nitrogen accretion in prematurely born human infants. J Pediatr. 1981;99:115–20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zlotkin SH, Stallings VA, Pencharz PB. Total parenteral nutrition in children. Pediatr Clin N Am. 1985;32:381–400.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Agostino Pierro .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Pierro, A., Eaton, S. (2019). Nutrition in Infants and Children. In: Puri, P. (eds) Pediatric Surgery. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38482-0_18-2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38482-0_18-2

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-38482-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-38482-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Chapter history

  1. Latest

    Nutrition in Infants and Children
    Published:
    23 April 2019

    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38482-0_18-2

  2. Original

    Nutrition in Infants and Children
    Published:
    24 March 2017

    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38482-0_18-1