Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Life on Land pp 1–13Cite as

Biodiversity Loss and Countermeasures

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:

  • 213 Accesses

Part of the book series: Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals ((ENUNSDG))

Synonyms

Biodiversity crisis; Species extinction; Survival of Biological diversity

Definitions

Biodiversity is the biological variability of life on earth. “Biodiversity” is a contraction of “biological diversity”. It encompasses all organisms ranging from assemblages of species and ecosystems to species, the genetic variability within species, and all the complex interactions between them. It is an umbrella term spanning taxonomic diversity, morphological and phenotypic diversity, genetic diversity, ecological diversity, and, more recently, functional diversity.

Introduction

Biodiversity it is a relatively recent term, popularized by the book BioDiversity, a collection of papers, edited by E. O. Wilson (1988), from the 1st National Forum on Biodiversity held in Washington, D.C., in September 1986 under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences and Smithsonian Institution. The stellar ascent of the term is illustrated by the results of a Web of Science search that reveals zero...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

References

  • Adenle AA (2012) Failure to achieve 2010 biodiversity’s target in developing countries: how can conservation help? Biodivers Conserv 21:2435–2442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-012-0325-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alroy J (2015) Current extinction rates of reptiles and amphibians. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112:13003–13008. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1508681112

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bai ZG, Dent DL, Olsson L, Schaepman ME (2008) Proxy global assessment of land degradation. Soil Use Manag 24:223–234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2008.00169.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr LM, Pressey RL, Fuller RA, Segan DB, McDonald-Madden E, Possingham HP (2011) A new way to measure the world’s protected area coverage. PLoS One 6:e24707

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borg J, Burgess S, Milo-Dale L (2019) Protecting our ocean. Europe’s challenges to meet the 2020 deadlines. WWF, Brussels

    Google Scholar 

  • Butchart SHM, Stattersfield AJ, Collar NJ (2006) How many bird extinctions have we prevented? Oryx 40:266–278. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605306000950

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butchart SHM, Walpole M, Collen B, van Strien A, Scharlemann JPW, Almond REA, Baillie JEM, Bomhard B, Brown C, Bruno J, Carpenter KE, Carr GM, Chanson J, Chenery AM, Csirke J, Davidson NC, Dentener F, Foster M, Galli A, Galloway JN, Genovesi P, Gregory RD, Hockings M, Kapos V, Lamarque J-F, Leverington F, Loh J, McGeoch MA, McRae L, Minasyan A, Morcillo MH, Oldfield TEE, Pauly D, Quader S, Revenga C, Sauer JR, Skolnik B, Spear D, Stanwell-Smith D, Stuart SN, Symes A, Tierney M, Tyrrell TD, Vie J-C, Watson R (2010) Global biodiversity: indicators of recent declines. Science 328:1164–1168. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1187512

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Canales Holzeis C, Fears R, Moughan PJ, Benton TG, Hendriks SL, Clegg M, ter Meulen V, von Braun J (2019) Food systems for delivering nutritious and sustainable diets: perspectives from the global network of science academies. Glob Food Sec 21:72–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.05.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carvallo GO, Castro SA (2017) Invasions but not extinctions change phylogenetic diversity of angiosperm assemblage on southeastern Pacific Oceanic islands. PLoS One 12:e0182105. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182105

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • CBD Secretariat (2010) COP 10 decisions. Tenth meeting of the conference of the parties to the convention on biological diversity, 18–29 October 2010 – Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, Japan. https://www.cbd.int/decisions/cop/?m=cop-10. Accessed 18 Aug 2015

  • CBD Secretariat (2014) Progress towards the Aichi biodiversity targets: an assessment of biodiversity trends, policy scenarios and key actions : global biodiversity outlook 4 (GBO-4) technical report. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Montreal

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Barnosky AD, Garcia A, Pringle RM, Palmer TM (2015) Accelerated modern human-induced species losses: entering the sixth mass extinction. Sci Adv 1:e1400253–e1400253. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1400253

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Dirzo R (2017) Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines. PNAS. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1704949114

  • Daily GC (1995) Restoring value to the world’s degraded lands. Science 269:350–354

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson NC (2014) How much wetland has the world lost? Long-term and recent trends in global wetland area. Mar Freshw Res 65:934. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF14173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Díaz S, Settele J, Brondízio E (2019) Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services–unedited advance version. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), Bonn

    Google Scholar 

  • Dinerstein E, Olson D, Joshi A, Vynne C, Burgess ND, Wikramanayake E, Hahn N, Palminteri S, Hedao P, Noss R, Hansen M, Locke H, Ellis EC, Jones B, Barber CV, Hayes R, Kormos C, Martin V, Crist E, Sechrest W, Price L, Baillie JEM, Weeden D, Suckling K, Davis C, Sizer N, Moore R, Thau D, Birch T, Potapov P, Turubanova S, Tyukavina A, de Souza N, Pintea L, Brito JC, Llewellyn OA, Miller AG, Patzelt A, Ghazanfar SA, Timberlake J, Klöser H, Shennan-Farpón Y, Kindt R, Lillesø J-PB, van Breugel P, Graudal L, Voge M, Al-Shammari KF, Saleem M (2017) An ecoregion-based approach to protecting half the terrestrial realm. Bioscience 67:534–545. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dinerstein E, Vynne C, Sala E, Joshi AR, Fernando S, Lovejoy TE, Mayorga J, Olson D, Asner GP, Baillie JEM, Burgess ND, Burkart K, Noss RF, Zhang YP, Baccini A, Birch T, Hahn N, Joppa LN, Wikramanayake E (2019) A global deal for nature: guiding principles, milestones, and targets. Sci Adv 5:eaaw2869. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw2869

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dirzo R, Young HS, Galetti M, Ceballos G, Isaac NJ, Collen B (2014) Defaunation in the Anthropocene. Science 345:401–406

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon MJR, Loh J, Davidson NC, Beltrame C, Freeman R, Walpole M (2016) Tracking global change in ecosystem area: the Wetland Extent Trends index. Biol Conserv 193:27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.10.023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dobrynin P, Liu S, Tamazian G, Xiong Z, Yurchenko AA, Krasheninnikova K, Kliver S, Schmidt-Küntzel A, Koepfli K-P, Johnson W, Kuderna LFK, García-Pérez R, de Manuel M, Godinez R, Komissarov A, Makunin A, Brukhin V, Qiu W, Zhou L, Li F, Yi J, Driscoll C, Antunes A, Oleksyk TK, Eizirik E, Perelman P, Roelke M, Wildt D, Diekhans M, Marques-Bonet T, Marker L, Bhak J, Wang J, Zhang G, O’Brien SJ (2015) Genomic legacy of the African cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus. Genome Biol 16:277. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-015-0837-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dufresnes C, Miquel C, Remollino N, Biollaz F, Salamin N, Taberlet P, Fumagalli L (2018) Howling from the past: historical phylogeography and diversity losses in European grey wolves. Proc R Soc B 285:20181148. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.1148

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dureuil M, Boerder K, Burnett KA, Froese R, Worm B (2018) Elevated trawling inside protected areas undermines conservation outcomes in a global fishing hot spot. Science 362:1403–1407. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau0561

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis EC, Ramankutty N (2008) Putting people in the map: anthropogenic biomes of the world. Front Ecol Environ 6:439–447. https://doi.org/10.1890/070062

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fa JE, Funk SM, O’Connell D (2011) Zoo conservation biology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Figueiredo L, Krauss J, Steffan-Dewenter I, Sarmento Cabral J (2019) Understanding extinction debts: spatio–temporal scales, mechanisms and a roadmap for future research. Ecography. 04740. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.04740

  • Frishkoff LO, Karp DS, M’Gonigle LK, Mendenhall CD, Zook J, Kremen C, Hadly EA, Daily GC (2014) Loss of avian phylogenetic diversity in neotropical agricultural systems. Science 345:1343–1346. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1254610

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Funk SM, Verma SK, Larson G, Prasad K, Singh L, Narayan G, Fa JE (2007) The pygmy hog is a unique genus: 19th century taxonomists got it right first time round. Mol Phylogenet Evol 45:427–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2007.08.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Game ET, Meijaard E, Sheil D, McDonald-Madden E (2014) Conservation in a wicked complex world; challenges and solutions. Conserv Lett 7:271–277. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12050

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gottelli D, Sillero-Zubiri C, Marino J, Funk SM, Wang J (2013) Genetic structure and patterns of gene flow among populations of the endangered Ethiopian wolf: Ethiopian wolf population genetic structure. Anim Conserv 16:234–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2012.00591.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harwatt H (2019) Including animal to plant protein shifts in climate change mitigation policy: a proposed three-step strategy. Clim Pol 19:533–541. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2018.1528965

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill SLL, Gonzalez R, Sanchez-Ortiz K, Caton E, Espinoza F, Newbold T, Tylianakis J, Scharlemann JPW, De Palma A, Purvis A (2018) Worldwide impacts of past and projected future land-use change on local species richness and the Biodiversity Intactness Index. BioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/311787

  • Hird A (2019) Congo Basin vs the Amazon: a tale of two forest fires. RFI. Accessed 27 Aug 2019. http://en.rfi.fr/africa/20190827-africa-forest-fire-amazon-deforestation

  • Hoffmann M, Hilton-Taylor C, Angulo A, Böhm M, Brooks TM, Butchart SH, Carpenter KE, Chanson J, Collen B, Cox NA (2010) The impact of conservation on the status of the world’s vertebrates. Science 330:1503–1509

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann M, Duckworth JW, Holmes K, Mallon DP, Rodrigues ASL, Stuart SN (2015) The difference conservation makes to extinction risk of the world’s ungulates: ungulate conservation. Conserv Biol 29:1303–1313. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12519

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann AA, Sgrò CM, Kristensen TN (2017) Revisiting adaptive potential, population size, and conservation. Trends Ecol Evol 32:506–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2017.03.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooke RL, Martín-Duque JF (2012) Land transformation by humans: a review. GSA Today 12:4–10. https://doi.org/10.1130/GSAT151A.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iacona G, Maloney RF, Chadès I, Bennett JR, Seddon PJ, Possingham HP (2017) Prioritizing revived species: what are the conservation management implications of de-extinction? Funct Ecol 31:1041–1048. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12720

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IUCN (2020) The IUCN red list of threatened species v 2015.2. https://www.iucnredlist.org

  • Jones KR, Klein CJ, Halpern BS, Venter O, Grantham H, Kuempel CD, Shumway N, Friedlander AM, Possingham HP, Watson JEM (2018a) The location and protection status of Earth’s diminishing marine wilderness. Curr Biol 28:2506–2512.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.06.010

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones KR, Venter O, Fuller RA, Allan JR, Maxwell SL, Negret PJ, Watson JEM (2018b) One-third of global protected land is under intense human pressure. Science 360:788–791. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9565

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuussaari M, Bommarco R, Heikkinen RK, Helm A, Krauss J, Lindborg R, Öckinger E, Pärtel M, Pino J, Rodà F, Stefanescu C, Teder T, Zobel M, Steffan-Dewenter I (2009) Extinction debt: a challenge for biodiversity conservation. Trends Ecol Evol 24:564–571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.04.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh DM, Hendry AP, Vázquez-Domínguez E, Friesen VL (2018) Six percent loss of genetic variation in wild populations since the industrial revolution. bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/488650

  • McRae L, Deinet S, Freeman R (2017) The diversity-weighted living planet index: controlling for taxonomic bias in a global biodiversity indicator. PLoS One:e0169156. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169156

  • Miraldo A, Li S, Borregaard MK, Florez-Rodriguez A, Gopalakrishnan S, Rizvanovic M, Wang Z, Rahbek C, Marske KA, Nogues-Bravo D (2016) An Anthropocene map of genetic diversity. Science 353:1532–1535. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf4381

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mora C, Tittensor DP, Adl S, Simpson AGB, Worm B (2011) How many species are there on earth and in the ocean? PLoS Biol 9:e1001127. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nei M, Marayuma T, Chakraborty R (1975) The bottleneck effect and genetic variability in populations. Evolution 29(1):10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newmark WD, Jenkins CN, Pimm SL, McNeally PB, Halley JM (2017) Targeted habitat restoration can reduce extinction rates in fragmented forests. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114:9635–9640. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1705834114

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nieto A, Alexander K (2010) European red list of saproxylic beetles. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg

    Google Scholar 

  • Nieto A, Roberts SPM, Kemp J, Rasmont P, Kuhlmann M, García Criado M, Biesmeijer JC, Bogusch P, Dathe HH, De la Rúa P, De Meulemeester T, Dehon M, Dewulf A, Ortiz-Sánchez FJ, Lhomme P, Pauly A, Potts SG, Praz C, Quaranta M, Radchenko VG, Scheuchl E, Smit J, Straka J, Terzo M, Tomozii B, Window J, Michez D, European Commission, Directorate-General for the Environment, IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) (2014) European red list of bees. Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg

    Google Scholar 

  • Norton BG (1996) Conservation biology and environmental values: can there be a universal earth ethic? In: Potvin C, Kraenzel M, Seutin G (eds) Protecting biological diversity. McGill-Queen’s University Press/Kingston, Montreal, London, Ithaca, pp 71–102

    Google Scholar 

  • Noss RF, Dobson AP, Baldwin R, Beier P, Davis CR, Dellasala DA, Francis J, Locke H, Nowak K, Lopez R, Reining C, Trombulak SC, Tabor G (2012) Bolder thinking for conservation. Conserv Biol 26:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01738.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NYDF Assessment Partners (2019) Progress on the New York declaration on forests: protecting and restoring forests: a story of large commitments yet limited progress. forestdeclaration.org

  • Palma AD, Hoskins A, Gonzalez RE, Börger L, Newbold T, Sanchez-Ortiz K, Ferrier S, Purvis A (2018) Annual changes in the Biodiversity Intactness Index in tropical and subtropical forest biomes, 2001–2012. bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/311688

  • Payn T, Carnus J-M, Freer-Smith P, Kimberley M, Kollert W, Liu S, Orazio C, Rodriguez L, Silva LN, Wingfield MJ (2015) Changes in planted forests and future global implications. For Ecol Manag 352:57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2015.06.021

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piaggio AJ, Segelbacher G, Seddon PJ, Alphey L, Bennett EL, Carlson RH, Friedman RM, Kanavy D, Phelan R, Redford KH, Rosales M, Slobodian L, Wheeler K (2017) Is it time for synthetic biodiversity conservation? Trends Ecol Evol 32:97–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2016.10.016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pimm SL, Jenkins CN, Abell R, Brooks TM, Gittleman JL, Joppa LN, Raven PH, Roberts CM, Sexton JO (2014) The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection. Science 344:1246752

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pinsky ML, Palumbi SR (2014) Meta-analysis reveals lower genetic diversity in overfished populations. Mol Ecol 23:29–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poore J, Nemecek T (2018) Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Science 360:987–992. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaq0216

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Press Association (2014) UN climate summit pledges to halt the loss of natural forests by 2030. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/sep/23/un-climate-summit-pledge-forests-new-york-declaration. Accessed 23 Sep 2014

  • Redford KH, Adams W, Mace GM (2013) Synthetic biology and conservation of nature: wicked problems and wicked solutions. PLoS Biol 11:e1001530. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001530

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reed S, Clark M, Thompson R, Hughes KA (2018) Microplastics in marine sediments near Rothera Research Station, Antarctica. Mar Pollut Bull 133:460–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.05.068

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ribeiro EMS, Santos BA, Arroyo-Rodríguez V, Tabarelli M, Souza G, Leal IR (2016) Phylogenetic impoverishment of plant communities following chronic human disturbances in the Brazilian Caatinga. Ecology 97:1583–1592. https://doi.org/10.1890/15-1122.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigues JLM, Pellizari VH, Mueller R, Baek K, Jesus E d C, Paula FS, Mirza B, Hamaoui GS, Tsai SM, Feigl B, Tiedje JM, Bohannan BJM, Nusslein K (2013) Conversion of the Amazon rainforest to agriculture results in biotic homogenization of soil bacterial communities. PNAS 110:988–993. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1220608110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sachs JD (2015) The age of sustainable development. Columbia University Press, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Salafsky N, Salzer D, Stattersfield AJ, Hilton-Taylor C, Neugarten R, Butchart SHM, Collen B, Cox N, Master LL, O’Connor S, Wilkie D (2008) A standard lexicon for biodiversity conservation: unified classifications of threats and actions: classifications of threats & actions. Conserv Biol 22:897–911. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00937.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherkow JS, Greely HT (2013) What if extinction is not forever? Science 340:32–33. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1236965

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steffen W, Richardson K, Rockstrom J, Cornell SE, Fetzer I, Bennett EM, Biggs R, Carpenter SR, de Vries W, de Wit CA, Folke C, Gerten D, Heinke J, Mace GM, Persson LM, Ramanathan V, Reyers B, Sorlin S (2015) Planetary boundaries: guiding human development on a changing planet. Science 347:1259855–1259855. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1259855

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Subramanian M (2019) Anthropocene now: influential panel votes to recognize Earth’s new epoch. Nature 21:2019

    Google Scholar 

  • Takacs D (1996) The idea of biodiversity: philosophies of paradise. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilman D, Clark M, Williams DR, Kimmel K, Polasky S, Packer C (2017) Future threats to biodiversity and pathways to their prevention. Nature 546:73–81. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22900

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Swaay C, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Butterfly Conservation Europe (eds) (2010) European red list of butterflies. IUCN and Butterfly Conservation Europe in collaboration with the European Union; Luxembourg : Available from Publications Office of the European Union, Gland, Switzerland

    Google Scholar 

  • Venter O, Fuller RA, Segan DB, Carwardine J, Brooks T, Butchart SHM, Di Marco M, Iwamura T, Joseph L, O’Grady D, Possingham HP, Rondinini C, Smith RJ, Venter M, Watson JEM (2014) Targeting global protected area expansion for imperiled biodiversity. PLoS Biol 12:e1001891. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001891

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Venter O, Sanderson EW, Magrach A, Allan JR, Beher J, Jones KR, Possingham HP, Laurance WF, Wood P, Fekete BM, Levy MA, Watson JEM (2016) Sixteen years of change in the global terrestrial human footprint and implications for biodiversity conservation. Nat Commun 7:12558. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12558

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Visconti P, Bakkenes M, Baisero D, Brooks T, Butchart SHM, Joppa L, Alkemade R, Di Marco M, Santini L, Hoffmann M, Maiorano L, Pressey RL, Arponen A, Boitani L, Reside AE, van Vuuren DP, Rondinini C (2016) Projecting global biodiversity indicators under future development scenarios: projecting biodiversity indicators. Conserv Lett 9:5–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waldron A, Mooers AO, Miller DC, Nibbelink N, Redding D, Kuhn TS, Roberts JT, Gittleman JL (2013) Targeting global conservation funding to limit immediate biodiversity declines. PNAS 110:12144–12148. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1221370110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson JEM, Shanahan DF, Di Marco M, Allan J, Laurance WF, Sanderson EW, Mackey B, Venter O (2016) Catastrophic declines in wilderness areas undermine global environment targets. Curr Biol 26:2929–2934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.08.049

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wearn OR, Reuman DC, Ewers RM (2012) Extinction debt and windows of conservation opportunity in the Brazilian Amazon. Science 337:228–232

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Willett W, Rockström J, Loken B, Springmann M, Lang T, Vermeulen S, Garnett T, Tilman D, DeClerck F, Wood A, Jonell M, Clark M, Gordon LJ, Fanzo J, Hawkes C, Zurayk R, Rivera JA, De Vries W, Majele Sibanda L, Afshin A, Chaudhary A, Herrero M, Agustina R, Branca F, Lartey A, Fan S, Crona B, Fox E, Bignet V, Troell M, Lindahl T, Singh S, Cornell SE, Srinath Reddy K, Narain S, Nishtar S, Murray CJL (2019) Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet 393:447–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson EO (1988) BioDiversity. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson EO (2016) Half-Earth: our planet’s fight for life. Liveright Publishing, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Winter M, Devictor V, Schweiger O (2013) Phylogenetic diversity and nature conservation: where are we? Trends Ecol Evol 28:199–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2012.10.015

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Nature Heritage, St Lawrence, Jersey

    Stephan M. Funk

Authors
  1. Stephan M. Funk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stephan M. Funk .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. European School of Sustainability, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

    Walter Leal Filho

  2. Center for Neuroscience & Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

    Anabela Marisa Azul

  3. Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Passo Fundo University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Passo Fundo, Brazil

    Luciana Brandli

  4. HAW Hamburg, Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

    Amanda Lange Salvia

  5. International Centre for Thriving, University of Chester, Chester, UK

    Tony Wall

Section Editor information

  1. Real Jardín Botánico-CSIC, Madrid, Spain

    María Paz Martín

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Funk, S.M. (2020). Biodiversity Loss and Countermeasures. In: Leal Filho, W., Azul, A., Brandli, L., Lange Salvia, A., Wall, T. (eds) Life on Land. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71065-5_88-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71065-5_88-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-71065-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-71065-5

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Earth and Environm. ScienceReference Module Physical and Materials ScienceReference Module Earth and Environmental Sciences

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation