Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Primärprävention und Sekundärprävention des Hirninfarkts

  • Living reference work entry
  • Latest version View entry history
  • First Online:
Klinische Neurologie

Part of the book series: Springer Reference Medizin ((SRM))

  • 327 Accesses

Zusammenfassung

Aufgrund umfangreicher Forschungsarbeiten steht der Ärzteschaft heute ein großes Arsenal hochwirksamer, kostengünstiger und nebenwirkungsarmer Strategien zur Verfügung, um Schlaganfälle zu verhindern. Würden diese Möglichkeiten genutzt, hätte das einen weitaus größeren therapeutischen Effekt als jede Akut- und Rehabilitationsbehandlung der Schlaganfallpatienten nach Eintritt des Ereignisses. Das gilt sowohl für die Verhinderung von Todesfällen, körperlicher Behinderung und persönlichem Leid als auch bezüglich der Kosten für die Gesellschaft. Tatsache ist jedoch, dass die präventiven Möglichkeiten bei Weitem nicht ausgeschöpft werden.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Literatur

Zitierte Literatur

  • Abbott A (2008) Asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis – it’s time to stop operating. Nat Clin Pract Neurol 4:4–5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abbott RD, Rodriguez B (1994) Physical activity in older middle-aged men and reduced risk of stroke. The Honolulu Heart Program. Am J Epidemiol 139:881–893

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abbott RD, Donahue RP, MacMahon SW et al (1987) Diabetes and the risk of stroke. The Honolulu Heart Program. JAMA 257:949–952

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • ACAS-Study (1995) Executive committee for the Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study. Endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis. JAMA 273:1421–1428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Almekhlafi MA, Wilton SB, Rabi DM, Ghali WA, Lorenzetti DL, Hill MD (2009) Recurrent cerebral ischemia in medically treated patent foramen ovale: a meta-analysis. Neurology 73:89–97

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amarenco P, Labreuche J (2009) Lipid management in the prevention of stroke: review and updated meta-analysis of statins for stroke prevention. Lancet Neurol 8:453–463

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amarenco P, Röther J, Michel P, Davis SM, Donnan GA (2006) Aortic arch atheroma and the risk of stroke. Curr Atheroscler Rep 8:343–346

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amarenco P, Goldstein LB, Szarek M, on behalf of the SPARCL Investigators et al (2007) Effects of intense low-density lipoprotein cholesterol reduction in patients with stroke or transient ischemic attack. The Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Chole-sterol Levels (SPARCL) trial. Stroke 38:3198–3204

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Antithrombotic Trialists’ Collaboration (2002) Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high-risk patients. Br Med J 324:71–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Assmann G, Cullen P (1996) Nationale kardiovaskuläre Initiative. Erkennung und Behandlung von Fettstoffwechselstörungen. Beilage zum Dtsch Ärzteblatt 5:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Assmann G, Schulte H (1988) The Prospective Cardiovascular Münster (PROCAM) study: prevalence of hyperlipidemia in persons with hypertension and/or diabetes mellitus and the relationship to coronary heart disease. Am Heart J 116:1713–1724

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bak S, Gaist D, Sindrup SH, Skytthe A, Christensen K (2002) Genetic liability in stroke: a long term follow-up study of Danish twins. Stroke 33:769–774

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bamford J, Sandercock P, Dennis M et al (1990) A prospective study of acute cerebrovascular disease in the community: the Oxfordshire community stroke project – 1981–86. 2. Incidence, case fatality rates and overall outcome at one year of cerebral infarction, primary intracerebral and subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 53:16–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baracchini C, Tonello S, Meneghetti G et al (2010) Neurosonographic monitoring of 105 spontaneous cervical artery dissections: a prospective study. Neurology 75:1864–1870

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett HJ, Taylor DW, Eliasziw M et al (1998) Benefit of carotid endarterectomy in patients with symptomatic moderate or severe stenosis. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators. N Engl J Med 339:1415–1425

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bassetti CL (2005) Sleep and stroke. Semin Neurol 25:19–32

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beckett NS, Peters CBR, Fletcher AE, for the HYVET Study Group et al (2008) Treatment of hypertension in patients 80 years of age or older. N Engl J Med 358:1887–1898

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin EJ, Plehn JF, D’Agostino RB et al (1992) Mitral anular calcification and the risk of stroke in an elderly cohort. N Engl J Med 327:374–379

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berger K, Schulte H, Stögbauer F, Assmann G (1998) Incidence and risk factors for stroke in an occupational cohort: the PROCAM-study. Stroke 29:1562–1566

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bertina RM, Koeleman BPMC, Koster T et al (1994) Mutation in blood coagulation factor V associated with resistence to activated protein C. Nature 369:64–67

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatt DL, Flather MD, Hacke W, for the CHARISMA Investigators et al (2007) Patients with prior myocardial infarction, stroke, or symptomatic peripheral aterial disease in the CHARISMA trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 49:1982–1988

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blauw GJ, Lagaay AM, Smelt AHM, Westendorp RGJ (1997) Stroke, statins, and cholesterol. A meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trials with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Stroke 28:946–950

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bonow RO, Carabello BA, Chatterjee K et al (2008) 2008 focused update incorporated into the ACC/AHA 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart diseases. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Associaton Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing committee to revise the 1998 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease). Circulation 118:e523–e661

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boushey CJ, Beresford SAA, Omenn GS, Motulsky AG (1995) A quantitative assessment of plasma homocystein as a risk factor for vascular disease: probable benefits of increasing folic acid intakes. JAMA 274:1049–1057

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burchfiel CM, Curb JD, Rodriguez BL et al (1994) Glucose intolerance and 22-year stroke incidence: the Honolulu Heart Program. Stroke 25:951–957

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • CADISS Trial Investigators (2015) Antiplatelet treatment compared with anticoagulation treatment for cervical artery dissection (CADISS): a randomised trial. Lancet Neurol 14:361–367

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Camargo CA (1989) Moderate alcohol consumption and stroke: epidemiologic evidence. Stroke 20:1611–1626

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cappuccio FP, Markandu ND, Carney C et al (1997) Double-blind randomized trial of modest salt restriction of older people. Lancet 350:850–854

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • CAPRIE Steering Committee (1996) A randomized, blinded trial of clopidogrel vs. aspirin in patients at risk of ischemic events (CAPRIE). Lancet 348:1329–1339

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CAST Collaborative Group (1997) CAST: randomized placebo-controlled trial of early aspirin use in 20.000 patients with acute ischemic stroke. Lancet 349:1641–1649

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen Y, Zeng G, Tan J et al (2015) Impact of roux-en Y gastric bypass surgery on prognostic factors of type 2 diabetes mellitus: meta-analysis and systematic review. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 31:653–662

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee et al (2003) JNC 7 – complete version. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure. Hypertension 42:1206–1252

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ (CTT) Collaborators (2005) Efficacy and safety of cholesterol-lowering treatment: prospective meta-analysis of data from 90.056 participants in 14 randomised trials of statins. Lancet 366:1267–1278

    Google Scholar 

  • Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ Collaborators (2008) Efficacy of cholesterol-lowering therapy in 18,686 people with diabetes in 14 randomized trials of statins. A meta-analysis. Lancet 371:117–125

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cifarelli A, Musto C, Parma A et al (2009) Long-term outcome of transcatheter patent foramen ovale closure in patients with paradoxical embolism. Int J Cardiol 141:304–310

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colhoun HM, Betteridge DJ, Durrington PN, on behalf of the CARDS Investigators et al (2004) Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in type 2 diabetes in the collaborative atorvastatin diabetes study (CARDS). Multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 364:685–696

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collins R, Peto R, MacMahon S et al (1990) Blood pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease. Part 2, short-term reductions in blood pressure: overview of randomised drug trials in their epidemiological context. Lancet 335:827–838

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colombe S, Kramer AF (2003) Fitness effects on the cognitive function in older adults. A meta analytic study. Psychol Sci 14:125–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly SJ, Ezekowitz MD, Yusuf S et al (2009) Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 361:1139–1151

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conroy SP, Westendrop RGH, Witham MD (2018) Hypertension treatment for older people-navigation between Scylla and Charybdis. Age and Ageing 47:505–508

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Debette S, Leys D (2009) Cervical-artery dissections: predisposing factors, diagnosis, and outcome. Lancet Neurol 8:668–678

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Del Zoppo GJ, Levy DE, Wasiewski WW et al (2009) Hyperfibrinogenemia and functional outcome from acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 40:1687–1691

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Derdeyn PC, Chimowitz MI, Lynn MJ et al (2014) Aggressive medical treatment with or without stenting in high-risk patients with intracranial artery stenosis (SAMMPRIS): the final results of a randomised trial. Lancet 383:333–341

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diener HC, Cunha L, Forbes C et al (1996) European stroke prevention study II. Dipyridamole and acetylsalicylic acid in the secondary prevention of stroke. J Neurol Sci 143:1–13

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diener HC, Bogousslavsky J, Brass LM, on behalf of the MATCH Investigators et al (2004) Aspirin and clopidogrel compared with clopidogrel alone after recent ischaemic stroke or transient ischaemic attack in high-risk patients (MATCH): randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 364:331–337

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diener HC, Sacco R, Yusuf S, for the Steering Committee and PRoFESS Study Group (2007) Rationale, design and baseline data of a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial comparing two antithrombotic regimens (a fixed-dose combination of extended-release dipyridamole plus ASA with clopidogrel) and telmisartan versus placebo in patients with strokes: the prevention regimen for effectively avoiding second strokes trial. Cerebrovasc Dis 23:368–380

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dittrich R, Nassenstein I, Bachmann R et al (2007) Polyarterial clustered recurrence of cervical artery dissection seems to be the rule. Neurology 69:180–186

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Döring A, Hense H-W, Stieber J, Keil U (1992) Prävalenz des Übergewichts. Ergebnisse in einer süddeutschen Bevölkerung im nationalen Vergleich. Münch Med Wochenschr 134:480–482

    Google Scholar 

  • Dziewas R, Konrad C, Dräger B et al (2003) Cervical artery dissection – clinical features, risk factors, therapy and outcome in 126 patients. J Neurol 250:1179–1184

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dziewas R, Humpert M, Hopmann B et al (2005) Increased prevalence of sleep apnea in patients with recurring ischemic stroke compared with first stroke victims. J Neurol 252:1394–1398

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dziewas R, Hopmann B, Humpert M et al (2008) Positional sleeping apnea in patients with ischemic stroke. Neurol Res 30:645–648

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eckert B, Zanella FE, Thie A et al (1996) Angioplasty of the internal carotid artery: results, complications and follow-up in 61 cases. Cerebrovasc Dis 6:97–105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ECST. European Carotid Surgery Trialists Collaborative Group (1995) Risk of stroke in the distribution of an asymptomatic carotid artery. Lancet 345:209–212

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ECST. European Carotid Surgery Trialists Collaborative Group. MRC European Carotid Surgery Trial (1991) Interim results for symptomatic patients with severe (70–99 %) or with mild (0–29 %) carotid stenosis. Lancet 337:1235–1243

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott WJ, Meyer PM (2007) Diabetes-Inzidenz in klinischen Studien mit Antihypertensiva: eine Netzwerk-Metanalyse. Lancet 369:201–207

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Endres M, Laufs U (2006) Discontinuation of statin treatment in stroke patients. Stroke 37:2640–2643

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Engelter ST, Brandt T, Debette S, for the Cervical Artery Dissection in Ischemic Stroke Patients (CADISP) Study Group et al (2007) Antiplatelets versus anticoagulation in cervical artery dissection. Stroke 38:2605–2611

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erath JW, Hohnloser SH (2018) Anticoagulation in atrial fibrillation. Current evidence and guideline recommendations. Herz 43:2–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ernst E, Resch KL (1993) Fibrinogen as a cardiovascular risk factor: a meta-analysis and review of the literature. Ann Intern Med 118:956–963

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • ESPRIT Study Group (2006) Aspirin plus dipyridamole versus aspirin alone after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin (ESPRIT): randomised controlled trial. Lancet 387:1665–1673

    Google Scholar 

  • Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvadó J et al. (2013) Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet. N Engl J Med 368:1279–90

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • European Atrial Fibrillation Trial Study Group (1995) Optimal oral anticoagulant therapy in patients with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation and recent cerebral ischemia. N Engl J Med 333:5–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evers S, Koch HG, Grotemeyer KH et al (1997) Features, symptoms, and neurophysiological findings in stroke associated with hyperhomocystein emia. Arch Neurol 54:1276–1282

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fehm HL, Kern W, Peters A (2006) The selfish brain: competition for energy resources. Prog Brain Res 153:129–140

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher GF, Blaire SN, Blumenthal J et al (1992) Statement of exercise: benefits and recommendations for the physical activity programs for all Americans. Circulation 86:340–344

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gabriel Sanchez R, Sanchez Gomez LM, Carmona L, Roqué I Figuls M, Bonfill Cosp X (2005) Hormone replacement therapy for preventing cardiovascular disease in post-menopausal women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD002229

    Google Scholar 

  • Gagnon DR, Zhang TJ, Brand FN, Kannel WB (1994) Hematocrit and the risk of cardiovascular sisease – the Framingham study: a 34-year follow-up. Am Heart J 127:674–682

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Palmieri MR, Torrado JM (2003) Clinical trials in isolated systolic hypertension in the elderly. P R Health Sci J 22:145–148

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillman MW, Cupples A, Gagnon DR et al (1995) Protective effect of fruits and vegetables on development of stroke in men. JAMA 273:1113–1117

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillum RF, Mussolino ME, Ingram DD (1996) Physical activity and stroke incidence in women and men. Am J Epidemiol 143:860–869

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilon D, Bounanno FS, Joffe MM, Leavitt M, Marshall JE, Kistler JP, Levine RA (1999) Lack of evidence of an association between mitral-valve prolapse and stroke in young patients. N Engl J Med 341:8–13

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giugliano RP, Ruff CT, Braunwald E et al (2013) Once-daily edoxaban versus warfarin in patients with atrial fi brillation. N Engl J Med 369:2093–2104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goessens BMB, Visseran FJL, Kappelle J, Algra A, van der Graaf Y, for the SMART Study Group (2007) Asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis and the risk of new vascular events in patient with manifest arterial disease: the SMART study. Stroke 38:1470–1475

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg RJ, Burchfiel CM, Benfante R et al (1995) Lifestyle and biologic factors associated with atherosclerotic disease in middle-aged men – 20-year findings from the Honolulu Heart Program. Arch Intern Med 155:686–694

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzales D, Rennard SI, Nides M, for the Varenicline Phase 3 Study Group et al (2006) Varenicline, an α4β2-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, versus sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smoking cessation. A randomised controlled trial. JAMA 296:47–55

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorelick PB (1995) Does alcohol prevent or cause stroke? Cerebrovasc Dis 5:375–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorelick PB, Farooq MU, Min J (2015) Population-based approaches for reducing stroke risk. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2015; Early online, F-8 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  • Granger CB, Alexander JH, McMurray JJ et al (2011) Apixaban versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 365:981–992

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gretarsdottir S, Thorleifsson G, Manolescu A et al (2008) Risk variants for atrial fibrillation on chromosome 4q25 associate with ischemic stroke. Ischemic Stroke Genome Wide Association Study. Ann Neurol 64:402–409

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz CNB, for the Coordinating Committee of the National Cholesterol Education Program et al (2004) Implications of recent clinical trials for the national cholesterol education program. Adult treatment panel III guidelines. J Am Cardiol 44:720–732

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gudbjartsson DF, Holm H, Gretarsdottir S et al (2009) A sequence variant in ZFHX3 on 16q22 associates with atrial fibrillation and ischemic stroke. Nat Genet 41:876–878

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Halkes PHA, Gray LJ, Bath PMW, Diener HC, Guiraud-Chaumeil B, Yatsu FM, Algra A (2008) Dipyridamole plus aspirin versus aspirin alone in secondary prevention after TIA or stroke: a meta-analysis by risk. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 79:1218–1223

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halm EA, Tuhrim S, Wang JJ, Rojas M, Hannan EL, Chassin MR (2007) Has evidence changed practice? Appropriateness of carotid endarterectomy after the clinical trials. Neurology 68:187–194

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Handke M, Harloff A, Olschewski M et al (2007) Patent foramen ovale and cryptogenic stroke in older patients. NEJM 357:2262–2268

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansberg T, Wong KSL, Droste DW, Ringelstein EB, Kay R (2002) Effects of the ultrasound contrast-enhancing agent Levovist on the detection of intracranial arteries and stenoses in Chinese by transcranial doppler ultrasound. Cerebrovasc Dis 1:105–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hart RG, Diener HC, Coutts SB et al (2014) Embolic strokes of undetermined source: the case for a new clinical construct. Lancet Neurol 13:429–438

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hauner H (2009) Übergewicht: Alles halb so schlimm? Dtsch Ärztebl 106:639–640

    Google Scholar 

  • Häussler B (1996) Epidemiologie des Schlaganfalls. In: Mäurer HC, Diener HC (Hrsg) Der Schlaganfall. Thieme, Stuttgart, S 1–25

    Google Scholar 

  • He K, Song Y, Daviglus ML, Liu K, van Horn L, Dyer AR, Goldbourt U, Greenland P (2004) Fish consumption and incidence of stroke. A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Stroke 35:1538–1542

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helmert U, Maschewsky-Schneider U, Mielck A, Greiser E (1993) Soziale Ungleichheit bei Herzinfarkt und Schlaganfall in Westdeutschland. Soz Präventivmed 38:123–132

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hense H-W, Stieber J, Filipiak B, Keil U (1993) Five-year changes in population blood pressure and hypertension prevalence. Results from the MONICA augsburg surveys 1984/85 and 1989/90. Ann Epidemiol 3:410–416

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hohnloser SH, Kuck KH, Lilienthal J, for the PIAF Investigators (2000) Rhythm or rate control in atrial fibrillation – Pharmacological intervention in atrial fibrillation (PIAF): a randomised trial. Lancet 356:1789–1794

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Homma S, Sacco RL, Di Tullio MR et al (2002) PFO in cryptogenic stroke study (PICSS) Investigators. Effect of medical treatment in stroke patients with patent foramen ovale: patent foramen ovale in cryptogenic stroke study. Circulation 105:2625–2631

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howard VJ, McDonnell MN (2015) Physical activity in primary stroke prevention. Just do it. Stroke 46:1735–1739

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes JR, Stead LF, Lancaster T (2007) Antidepressants for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1:CD000031

    Google Scholar 

  • Joint National Committee (JNC) (1997) The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure (JNC VI). Arch Intern Med 157:2413–2446

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joshipura KJ, Ascherio A, Manson JE et al (1999) Fruit and vegetable intake in relation to risk of ischemic stroke. JAMA 282:1233–1239

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Juvela S, Hillbom M, Numminen H, Koskinen P (1993) Cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption as risk factors for aneurysmal sub-arachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 24:639–646

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Juvela S, Hillbom M, Palomaki H (1995) Risk factors for spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 26:1558–1564

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kakkos SK, Sabetai M, Tegos T, for the Asymptomatic Carotid Stenosis and Risk of Stroke (ACSRS) Study Group et al (2009) Silent embolic infarcts on computed tomography brain scans and risk of ipsilateral hemispheric events in patients with symptomatic internal carotid artery stenosis. J Vasc Surg 49:902–909

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kawachi I, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ et al (1993) Smoking cessation and decreased risk of stroke in women. JAMA 269:232–236

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keil U, Becher H, Heidrich J et al (2006) Passivrauchbedingte Morbidität und Mortalität in Deutschland. In: Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum Heidelberg (Hrsg) Passiv rauchen – ein unterschätztes Gesundheitsrisiko, Heidelberg, S 20–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Kern R, Ringleb PA, Hacke W, Mas JL, Hennerici MG (2007) Stenting for carotid artery stenosis. Nat Clin Pract Neurol 3:212–220

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kernan WN, Ovbiagele B, Black HR et al (2014) Guidelines for the prevention of stroke in patients with stroke and transient ischemic attack: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 457:2160–2236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiely DK, Wolf PA, Cupples LA et al (1994) Physical activity and stroke risk: the Framingham study. Am J Epidemiol 140:608–620

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirchhof P, Bax J, Blomstrom-Lundquist C et al (2009) Early and comprehensive management of atrial fibrillation: proceedings from the 2nd AFNET/EHRA consensus conference on atrial fibrillation entitled „research perspectives in atrial fibrillation“. Europace 11:860–885

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirchhof P, Benussi S, Kotecha D (2016) 2016 ESC guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with EACTS. Eur Heart J 37:2893–2962

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kresowik TF, Bratzler DW, Kresowik RA (2004) Multistate improvement in process and outcomes of carotid endarterectomy. J Vasc Surg 39:372–380

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kurth T, Gaziano JM, Berger K et al (2002) Body mass index and the risk of stroke in men. Arch Intern Med 162:2557–2562

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kurth T, Gaziano JM, Rexrode KM, Kase CS, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE (2005) Prospective study of body mass index and risk of stroke in apparently healthy women. Circulation 111:1992–1998

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lam TH, Li ZB, Ho SY et al (2007) Smoking, quitting and mortality in an elderly cohort of 56,000 Hong Kong Chinese. Tob Control 16:182–189

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Laufs U, Hoppe UC, Rosenkranz S et al (2010) Kardiologische Diagnostik nach zerebraler Ischämie. Konsensuspapier der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Herz und Hirn der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Kardiologie – Herz- und Kreislaufforschung e.V. (DGK) und der Deutschen Schlaganfall-Gesellschaft e.V. (DSG. Nervenarzt 81:444–462

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lavallée PC, Meseguer E, Abboud H et al (2007) A transient ischaemic attack clinic with round-the-clock-access (SOS-TIA): feasibility and effects. Lancet Neurol 6:953–960

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Law MR, Morris JK, Wald NJ (2009) Use of blood pressure lowering drugs in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of 147 randomised trails in the context of expectations from prospective epidemiological studies. BMJ 338:b1665 (online)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lee IM, Manson JA, Berger K et al (1999) Exercise and risk of stroke in male physicians. Stroke 30:1–6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee CD, Folsom AR, Blair SN (2003) Physical activity and stroke risk: a metaanalysis. Stroke 34:2475–81

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee M, Hong KS, Chang SC et al (2010) Ekkicacy of homocystein lowering therapy with folic acid in stroke prevention: a meta-analysis. Stroke 41:1205–1212

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Li J, Siegrist J (2012) Physical activity and risk of cardiovascular disease–a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Int J Environ Res Public Health 9:391–407

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lindenstrom E, Boysen G, Nyboe J (1994) Influence of total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides on risk of cerebrovascular disease: the Copenhagen City Heart Study. Br Med J 309:11–15

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lip GY, Skjoth F, Nielsen PB, Larsen TB (2015) Non-valvular atrial fibrillation patients with none or one additional risk factor of the CHA2DS2-VASc score. A compre- hensive net clinical benefit analysis for warfarin, aspirin, or no therapy. Thromb Haemost 114:826–834

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Longstreth WT Jr, Nelson LM, Koepsell TD, van Belle G (1992) Cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 23:1242–1249

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lonn E, Yusuf S, Arnold MJ et al (2006) Homocysteine lowering with folic acid and B vitamins in vascular disease. N Engl J Med 354:1567–1577

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe GDO, Lee AJ, Rumley A et al (1997) Blood viscosity and risk of cardiovascular events: the Edinburgh Artery Study. Br J Haematol 96:168–173

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lüdemann P, Nabavi DG, Junker R et al (1998) Factor V Leiden mutation is a risk factor for cerebral venous thrombosis. A case control study of 55 patients. Stroke 29:2507–2510

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lüscher TF, Creager MA, prepared with the assistance of Beckman JA, Cosentino F (2003) Diabetes and vascular disease: pathophysiology, clinical consequences, and medical therapy: part II. Circulation 108:1655–1661

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacMahon S, Rodgers A (1994a) The epidemiological association between blood pressure and stroke: implications for primary and secondary prevention. Hypertens Res 17(Suppl 1):S23–S32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacMahon S, Rodgers A (1994b) Antihypertensive agents and stroke prevention. Cerebrovasc Dis 4(Suppl):11–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maki K, Guyton JR, Orringer CE et al (2016) Triglyceride-lowering therapies reduce cardiovascular disease event risk in subjects with hypertriglyceridemia. J Clin Lipidol 10:905–914

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mancia G et al (2013) ESH/ESC guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J 34:2159–2219

    Google Scholar 

  • Man-Son-Hing M, Laupacis A (2003) Anticoagulant-related bleeding in older persons with atrial fibrillation. Physicians’ fears often unfounded. Arch Intern Med 163:1580–1586

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Markus HS, Droste DW, Kaps M, Larrue V, Lees KR, Siebler M, Ringelstein EB (2005) Dual antiplatelet therapy with clopidogrel and aspirin in symptomatic carotid stenosis evaluated using doppler embolic signal detection. The Clopidogrel and Aspirin for Reduction of Emboli in Symptomatic carotid Stenosis (CARESS) trial. Circulation 111:2233–2240

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Markus HS, Kng A, Shipley M et al (2010) Asymptomatic embolisation for prediction of stroke in the Asymptomatic Carotid Emboli Study (ACES): prospective observational study. Lancet. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70120/4

  • Mas JL, Zuber M (1995) Recurrent cerebrovascular events in patients with patent foramen ovale, atrial septal aneurysm, or both and cryptogenic stroke or transient ischemic attack. French study group on patent foramen ovale and atrial septum aneurysm. Am Heart J 130:1083–1088

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mas JL, Arquizan C, Lamy C (2001) Patent foramen ovale and atrial septal aneurysm study group: recurrent cerebrovascular events associated with patent formane ovale, atrial septal aneurysms, or both. N Engl J Med 345:1740–1746

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller VT, Pearce LA, Fineberg WM, on behalf of the Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Investigators et al (1996) Differential effect of aspirin versus warfarin on clinical stroke types in patients with atrial fibrillation. Neurology 46:238–240

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MRC Asymptomatic Carotid Surgery Trial (ACST) Collaborative Group (2004) Prevention of disabling and fatal strokes by successful carotid endarterectomy in patients without recent neurological symptoms. Randomised controlled trial. Lancet 363:1491–1502

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NASCET. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators (1991) Beneficial effect of carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients with high grade carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med 325:445–453

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naylor AR (2016) Lost in SPACE. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 51:759–760

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naylor M, Maron BA (2014) Contemporary approach to paradoxical embolism. Circulation 129:892–1897

    Google Scholar 

  • Naylor AR, Gaines PA, Rothwell PM (2009) Who benefits most from intervention for asymptomatic carotid stenosis: patients or professionals? Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 37:625–632

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nieuwlaat R, Capucci A, Camm AJ, on behalf of the Euro Heart Survey Investigators et al (2005) Atrial fibrillation management: a prospective survey in ESC member countries. The Euro Heart Survey on atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J 26:2422–2434

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Donnell CH, Ridger PM, Glynn RJ et al (1997) Hypertension and borderline isolated systolic hypertension increase risks of cardiovascular disease and mortality in male physicians. Circulation 95:1132–1137

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Donnell MJ, Xavier D, Liu L, Zhang H, Chin SL, Rao-Melacini P et al (2010) INTERSTROKE investigators. Risk factors for ischaemic and intracerebral haemorrhagic stroke in 22 countries (the INTERSTROKE study): a case-control study. Lancet 376:112–123

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paciaroni M, Hennerici M, Agnelli C, Bogousslavsky J (2007) Statins and stroke prevention. Cerebrovasc Dis 24:170–182

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perry IJ, Refsum H, Morris RW et al (1995) Prospective study of serum total homocystein concentration and risk of stroke in middle-aged british men. Lancet 346:1395–1398

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petitti DB, Sidney S, Bernstein A et al (1996) Stroke in users of low-dose oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med 335:8–15

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peverill RE, Harper RW, Gelman J et al (1996) Determinants of increased regional left atrial coagulation activity in patients with mitral stenosis. Circulation 94:331–339

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qureshi AI, Suri MFK, Kirmani JF, Divani AA (2005) Cigarette smoking among spouses. Another risk factor for stroke in women. Stroke 36:e74–e76

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raabe A, Seifert V, Schmiedek P et al (2002) Empfehlungen zum Management nichtrupturierter intrakranieller Aneurysmen. Zentralbl Neurochir 63:70–76

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapsomaniki E, Timmis A, George J et al. (2014) Blood pressure and incidence of twelve cardiovascular diseases: lifetime risks, healthy life-years lost, and age-specific associations in 1.25 million people. Lancet 383:1899–1911

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rees DC, Cox M, Clegg JW (1995) World distribution of factor V Leiden. Lancet 346:1133–1134

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds K, Lewis LB, Nolen JDL, Kinney GL, Sathya B, He J (2003) Alcohol consumption and risk of stroke. A meta-analysis. JAMA 289:579–588

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Stampfer MJ et al (1994) Prospective study of endogenous tissue plas minogen activator and risk of stroke. Lancet 343:940–943

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ringelstein EB, Knecht S (2006) Blutdrucksenkung zur Risikoreduktion nach Schlaganfall. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 131:S135–S138

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ringelstein EB, Zeumer H, Brückmann H et al (1986) Atraumatische Diagnostik und semi-invasive Therapie des Subklaviaanzapfsyndroms mit Hilfe der per kutanen transluminalen Angioplastie (PTA). Ein zeitgemäßes Konzept. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 54:216–231

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ringelstein EB, Droste DW, Babikian VL et al (1998) Consensus on microembolus detection by TCD. International Consensus Group on Microembolus Detection. Stroke 29:725–729

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ringelstein EB, Arnold M, Dittrich R, Fazekas F, Sitzer M (2008) Dissektionen hirnversorgender supraaortaler Arterien. In: Kommission „Leitlinien der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Neurologie“ (Hrsg) Leitlinien für Diagnostik und Therapie in der Neurologie, 4. Aufl. Thieme, Stuttgart, S 288–297

    Google Scholar 

  • Ringelstein EB, Dittrich R, Sitzer M, Arnold M, Haring HP, Frese A (2016) Spontane Dissektionen der extra- und intrakraniellen hirnversorgenden Arterien. Akt Neurol 43:418–427

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation (1994) Analysis of pooled data from 5 rando mized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 154:1449–1457

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ritter MA, Droste DW, Hegedüs K, Szepesi R, Nabavi DG, Csiba L, Ringelstein EB (2005) Role of cerebral amyloid angiopathy in intracerebral hemorrhage in hypertensive patients. Neurology 64:1233–1237

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ritter MA, Dittrich R, Thoenissen N, Ringelstein EB, Nabavi DG (2008) Prevalence and prognostic impact of microembolic signals in arterial sources of embolism. A systematic review of the literature. J Neurol 255:953–961

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins AS, Manson JE, Lee IM et al (1994) Cigarette smoking and stroke in a cohort of US male physicians. Ann Intern Med 120:458–462

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • ROCKET AF Investigators, Patel MR, Mahaffey KW, Garg J et al (2011) Rivaroxaban versus warfarin in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 365:883–891

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossouw JE, Prentice RL, Manson JE et al (2007) Postmenopausal hormone therapy and risk of cardiovascular disease by age and years since menopause. JAMA 297:1465–1477

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothwell PM, Eliasziw M, Gutnikov SA et al (2004) Endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid stenosis in relation to clinical subgroups and timing of surgery. Lancet 363:915–924

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothwell PM, Giles MF, Chandratheva A, on behalf of the Early Use of Existing Preventive Strategies for Stroke (EXPRESS) Study et al (2007) Effect of urgent treatment of transient ischaemic attack and minor stroke on early recurrent stroke (EXPRESS study): a prospective population-based sequential comparison. Lancet 370:1432–1442

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roy D, Talajic M, Nattel S, The Atrial Fibrillation and Congestive Heart Failure Investigators et al (2008) Rhythm control versus rate control for atrial fibrillation and heart failure. NEJM 358:2667–2677

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sacco RL, Foulkes MA, Mohr JP et al (1989) Determinants of early recurrence of cerebral infarction: the stroke data bank. Stroke 20:983–989

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sacco RL, Shi T, Zamanello MC, Kagman DE (1994) Predictors of mortality and recurrence after hospitalised cerebral in farction in an community: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Neurology 44:626–634

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sampson UK, Pfeffer MA, McMurray JJ, Lokhnygina Y, White HD, Solomon SD, VALIANT Trials Investigators (2007) Predictors of stroke in high-risk patients after acute myocardial infarction: insights from the VALIANT trial. Eur Heart J 28:685–691

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sander D, Kearney MT (2009) Reducing the risk of stroke in type 2 diabetes: Pathophysiological and therapeutic perspectives. J Neurol 256:1603–1619

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sargent JD, Demidenko E, Malenka D et al (2012) Smoking restrictions and hospitalisation for acute coronary events in Germany. Clin Res Cardiol 101:227–235

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Saxena R, Koudstaal PJ (2004) Antikoagulants for preventing stroke in patients with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation and the history of stroke or transient ischaemic attack. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD000185

    Google Scholar 

  • Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study Group (1994) Randomized trial of cholesterole lowering in 4444 patients with coronary heart disease. Lancet 344:1383–1389

    Google Scholar 

  • Schievink WI (2001) Spontaneous dissection of the carotid and vertebral arteries. N Engl J Med 344:898–906

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schnaudrigel S, Gröschel K, Pilgram SM, Kastrup A (2008) New brain lesions after carotid stenting versus carotid endarterectomy: a systematic review oft he literature. Stoke 39:1911–1919

    Google Scholar 

  • Serena J, Marti-Fabregas J, Santamarina E, on behalf of the CODICIA (Right-to-Left Shunt in Cryptogenic Stroke) Study; for the Stroke Project of the Cerebrovascular Diseases Study Group, Spanish Society of Neurology et al (2008) Recurrent stroke and massiv right-to-left shunt. Results from the prospective Spanish multicenter (CODICIA) study. Stroke 39:3131–3136

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sever PS, Dahlöf B, Poulter NR, for the ASCOT Investigators et al (2003) Prevention of coronary and stroke events with atorvastatin in hypertensive patients who have average or lower-than average cholesterol concentrations, in the Anglo-Scandinavian cardiac outcomes trial – Lipid Lowering Arm (ASCOT-LLA). A multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 361:1149–1158

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shah R, Nayyar M, Jovin IS et al (2018) Device closure versus medical therapy alone for patent foramen ovale in patients with cryptogenic stroke. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 168:335–342

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma AM, Wittchen HU, Kirch W, for the HYDRA Study Group et al (2004) High prevalence and poor control of hypertension in primary care: cross-sectional study. J Hypertens 22:479–486

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • SHEP Cooperative Research Group (1991) Prevention of stroke by antihypertensive drug treatment in older persons with isolated systolic hypertention: final results of the systolic hypertention in the elderly program (SHEP). JAMA 265:3255–3264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shinton R, Beevers G (1989) Meta-analysis of relation between cigarette smoking and stroke. BMJ 298:789–794

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shufelt CL, Bairey Merz CN, Prentice RL et al (2014) Menopause 21:260–266

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith P, Arnesen H, Holme I (1990) The effect of warfarin on mortality and reinfarction after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 323:47–152

    Google Scholar 

  • SPAF II (1994) Warfarin vs. aspirin for prevention of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation: stroke prevention in Atrial Fibrillation II Study. Lancet 343:687–691

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence JD, Tamayo A, Lownie SP, Ng WP, Ferguson GG (2005) Absence of microemboli on transcranial doppler identifies low-risk patients with asymptomatic carotid stenosis. Stroke 36:2373–2378

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Staessen JA, Fagard R, Thijs L, for the Systolic Hyperten tion in Europe Trial Investigators et al (1997) Randomised double-blind comparison of placebo and active treatment for older patients with isolated systolic hypertention (SÜST-EUR-Study). Lancet 350:757–764

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stratton IM, Adler AI, Neil HAW, on behalf of the UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group et al (2000) Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35). Prospective observational study. BMJ 321:405–412

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels (SPARCL) Investigators (2006) High-dose atorvastatin after stroke or transient ischemic attack. N Engl J Med 355:549–559

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tapia Granados JA, Diez Roux AV (2009) Life and death during the great depression. PNAS 106:17290–17295

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • The ACES Investigators (2009) The asymptomatic carotid emboli study (ACES): study design and baseline results. Int J Stroke 4:398–405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The European Stroke Organization (ESO) Executive Committee, ESO Writing Committee (2008) Guidelines for management of ischaemic stroke and transient ischaemic attack 2008. Cerebrovasc Dis 25:457–507

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The Homocysteine Studies Collaboration (2002) Homocysteine and risk of ischemic heart disease and stroke. A meta-analysis. JAMA 288:2015–2022

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Timio M, Saronio P, Venanzi S, Gentili S, Verdura C, Timio F (1999) Blood pressure in nuns in a secluded order: a 30-year follow-up. Miner Electrolyte Metab 25:73–79

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Touzé E, Gauvrit J-Y, Moulin T, for the Multicenter Survey on Natural History of Cervical Artery Dissection et al (2003) Risk of stroke and recurrent dissection after a cervical artery dissection: a multicenter study. Neurology 61:1347–1351

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tunick PA, Nayar AC, Goodkin GM, for the NYU Atheroma Group et al (2002) Effect of treatment on the incidence of stroke and other emboli in 519 patients with severe thoracic aortic plaque. Am J Cardiol 90:1320–1325

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turner RC, Cull CA, Frighi V, Holmann RR, for the UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group (1999) Glycemic control with diet, sulfonylurea, metformin, or insulin in patient with type 2 diabetes mellitus: progressive requirement for multiple therapies (UKPDS 49). JAMA 281:2005–2012

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang X, Qin X, Demirtas H et al (2007) Efficacy of folic acid supplementation in stroke prevention: a metaanalysis. Lancet 369:1878–1882

    Google Scholar 

  • Wannamethee G, Shaper AG (1992) Physical activity and stroke in bri tish middle aged men. BMJ 304:597–601

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Waters DD, Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, for the MIRACL Study Investigatros et al (2002) Effects of atorvastatin on stroke in patients with unstable angina or non-Q-wave myocardial infarction. A Myocardial Ischemia Reduction with Aggressive Cholesterol Lowering (MIRACL) Substudy. Circulation 106:1690–1695

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiklund PG, Nilsson L, Nilsson Ardnor S et al (2005) Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 4G/5G polymorphism and risk of stroke. Replicated findings in two nested case-control studies based on independent cohorts. Stroke 36:1661–1665

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson PWF, Hoeg JM, D’Agostino RB et al (1997) Cumulative effect of high-cholesterol levels, high blood pressure, and cigarette smoking on carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med 337:516–522

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Witte AV, Fobker M, Gellner R, Knecht S, Flöel A (2009) Caloric restriction improves memory in elderly humans. PNAS 106:1255–1260

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf PA, Abbot RD, Kannel WB (1991a) Atrial fibrillation as an independent risk factor for stroke: the Framingham study. Stroke 22:983–988

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf PA, D’Agostino RB, Belanger AJ, Kannel WB (1991b) Probability of stroke: a risk profile from the Framingham Study. Stroke 22:312–318

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf PA, Benjamin EJ, Belanger AJ et al (1996) Secular trends in the prevalence of atrial fibrillation: the Framingham study. Am Heart J 131:790–795

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf-Maier K, Cooper RS, Banegas JR et al (2003) Hypertension prevalence and blood pressure levels in 6 European countries, Canada, and the United States. JAMA 289:2363–2369

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zunker P, Schick A, Buschmann H-C, Georgiadis D et al (1996) Hyperinsulinism and cerebral microangiopathy. Stroke 27:219–223

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Weiterführende Literatur

  • Barnett HJ (1992) Stroke: pathophysiology, diagnosis and management, 2. Aufl. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrow DL (Hrsg) (1991) Intracranial vascular malformations. AANS, Park Ridge/II

    Google Scholar 

  • Berenstein A, Lasjaunias P (1992) Surgical neuroangiography, Endovascular treatment of cerebral lesions, Bd 4. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York/Tokyo

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Berlit P, Berg-Dammer E, Nahser HC, Kühne D (1994) Zerebrale arteriovenöse Malformation. Nervenarzt 65:226–237

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bogousslavsky J, Caplan LR (1995) Stroke syndromes. Cambridge University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Bousser M-G, Chiras J, Bories J, Castaigne P (1985) Cerebral venous thrombosis – a review of 38 cases. Stroke 16:199–213

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brott T, Fieschi C, Hacke W (1994) General therapy of acute ischemic stroke. In: Hacke W (Hrsg) Neuro critical care. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York/Tokyo, S 553–577

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne JV, Molyneux AJ, Brennan RP, Renowden SA (1995) Embolisation of recently ruptured intracranial aneurysmas. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 59:616–620

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cantú C, Barinagarrementeria F (1993) Cerebral venous thrombosis associated with pregnancy and puerperium. Review of 67 cases. Stroke 24:1880–1884

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caplan LR (1993) Stroke: a clinical approach, 2. Aufl. Butterworth-Heinemann, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Castillo J, Davalos A, Toni D (1997) Management of acute ischemic stroke. Springer, Barcelona

    Google Scholar 

  • Daffertshofer M, Ries S, Schminke U, Hennerici M (1996) High-intensity transient signals in patients with cerebral isch emia. Stroke 27:1844–1849

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Einhäupl KM, Villringer A, Meister W et al (1991) Heparin treatment in sinus venous thrombosis. Lancet 338:597–600

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferbert A, Pessin MS, Rieke K (1994) Vertebrobasilar stroke, cerebellar stroke, and basilar occlusion. In: Hacke W (Hrsg) Neuro critical care. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York/Tokyo, S 596–606

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Forsting M, Krieger D, von KR et al (1993) The prognostic value of collateral blood supply in acute middle cerebral artery occlusion. In: del Zoppo GJ, Mori E, Hacke W (Hrsg) Thrombolytic therapy of acute stroke II. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York/Tokyo, S 160–167

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Furlan AJ, Busse O, Ringelstein EB (1994) Special aspects in the treatment of severe hemispheric brain infarction. In: Hacke W (Hrsg) Neuro critical care. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York/Tokyo, S 578–595

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hacke W, Schwab S, Horn M et al (1996) The „malignant“ middle cerebral artery infarction: clinical course and neuroradiological signs. Arch Neurol 53:309–315

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton MG, Zabramski JM (1995a) Intracerebral hematomas. In: Carter LP, Spetzler FR (Hrsg) Neurovascular surgery. McGraw-Hill, New York, S 477–496

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton MG, Zabramski JM (1995b) Intracerebral hematomas. In: Carter LP, Spetzler FR (Hrsg) Neurovascular surgery

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz M, Purdy P, Unwin H et al (1995) Treatment of dural sinus thrombosis using selective catheterization and urokinase. Ann Neurol 38:58–67

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huhn A (1972) Klinik der venösen Abflussstörungen des Gehirns. In: Gänshirt H (Hrsg) Der Hirnkreislauf. Thieme, Stuttgart, S 651–679

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt WE, Kosnik EJ (1974) Timing and perioperative care in intracranial aneurysm surgery. Clin Neurosurg 21:79–89

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Isensee C, Reul J, Thron A (1994) Magnetic resonance imaging of thrombosed dural sinuses. Stroke 25:29–34

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann HH (1992) Intracerebral hematomas. Raven, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kopitnik TA, Samson DS (1993) Management of subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 56:947–959

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • MacKenzie JM (1996) Intracerebral haemorrhage. J Clin Pathol 49:360–364

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McLean BN (1991) Dural sinus thrombosis. Br J Hosp Med 45:226–231

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pia HW, Langmaid C, Zierski J (1980) Spontaneous intracerebral haematomas. Advances in diagnosis and therapy. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York/Tokyo

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Preter M, Tzourio C, Ameri A, Bousser M-G (1996) Long-term prognosis in cerebral venous thrombosis. Follow-up of 77 patients. Stroke 27:243–246

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weaver JP, Fisher M (1994) Subarachnoid hemorrhage: an update of pathogenesis, diagnosis and mangement. J Neurol Sci 125:119–131

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Welch KMA, Caplan LR, Reis DJ, Siesjö BK, Weir B (1997) Primer on cerebrovascular diseases. Academic, San Diego

    Google Scholar 

  • Yasargil MG (1987, 1988) Microneurosurgery, Bd. III A,B. Thieme, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Klinik und Poliklinik für Neurologie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Münster, Deutschland

    Erich Bernd Ringelstein

Authors
  1. Erich Bernd Ringelstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Erich Bernd Ringelstein .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Essen, Germany

    Peter Berlit

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer-Verlag GmbH Deutschland, ein Teil von Springer Nature

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Ringelstein, E.B. (2019). Primärprävention und Sekundärprävention des Hirninfarkts. In: Berlit, P. (eds) Klinische Neurologie. Springer Reference Medizin. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44768-0_149-2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44768-0_149-2

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-662-44768-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-662-44768-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Referenz Medizin

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Chapter history

  1. Latest

    Primärprävention und Sekundärprävention des Hirninfarkts
    Published:
    02 July 2019

    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44768-0_149-2

  2. Original

    Primärprävention und Sekundärprävention des Hirninfarkts
    Published:
    20 June 2018

    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44768-0_149-1

Search

Navigation